Effective program design for foundational learning should target the factors needed to optimize learning. These factors are ordered below according to their centrality to student learning outcomes.
For impact, quality program design must consider whether the central elements of quality classroom instruction are fulfilled.
In addition to these factors, the conditions of schooling and support outside the classroom are also influential, including:
School leadership and administration, instructional coaching and mentoring of teachers, student and teacher well-being, caregiver engagement and community involvement, inclusion and equity, and the use of assessment data in school improvement planning and local accountability.
Curriculum alignment and evidence-based design; policy environment; and decentralized support for schools, including instructional quality, assessment, and problem-solving for school improvement.
The following “focus areas” are not organized by the above factors necessary for foundational learning outcomes. However, because there are many research-based practices for teaching reading and math that are universal across all children, most of these resources will refer to a similar set of key components. If you are looking for more in-depth resources about how to design a reform or program with each of these factors in mind, please see the sections entitled “Program Design from the Foundational Learning Perspective” and “Curriculum, Policy and Planning.”
Resources that describe current models for foundational learning reforms and programs.
Overview: Guidance created for development partners to define the scope of a structured pedagogy program
Host: UNICEF Eastern and Southern Africa
Description: This practical resource includes a model/framework to “inform discussions between governments, teachers, civil society, and international partners” on teacher professional development (TPD), TLMs, formative assessments, information and communication technology (ICT), and caregiver engagement. It features studies from different contexts in Eastern and Southern Africa. Potential uses include contextual analysis, audits of education interventions, stakeholder mapping, financing, and determining preconditions for success, with guidance structured as reflection questions.
Read MoreOverview: A compendium of resources on the foundational literacy and numeracy (FLN) hub
Host: FLN Hub
Description: A comprehensive set of resources for TaRL, including an overview, methodology, mentoring and review in TaRL, designing a TaRL program, case studies and implementation guides, and assessments.
Read MoreOverview: A guide to foundational literacy and numeracy (FLN) programs with a focus on stakeholder engagement (decision-makers and practitioners)
Host: Delivery Associates, with support from the UNICEF FLN Partnership
Description: Tools that guide public sector actors to implement FLN reforms through strategic planning, stakeholder engagement, data-driven decision-making, and the establishment of systems for evaluation and iteration. The guide also includes case studies that utilize the tools.
Read MoreOverview: Documentation of the GPF for Reading and Mathematics
Host: Science of Teaching
Description: A set of resources which outline key competencies in reading and mathematics from grades 1 to 9, along with an associated minimum proficiency standard, which is intended to be contextualized by countries using the framework. It can be used to understand relative strength of curriculum and assessment, or for countries to track and report on SDG 4.1.1, the proportion of children and young people achieving a minimum proficiency level in reading and math.
Overview: A working paper by the USAID Global Reading Network
Host: Science of Teaching
Description: A working paper on how to design sustainable and scalable primary grade literacy and numeracy programs, aimed at presenting an efficient and effective dual approach by applying the MOSAIC framework. The paper includes 10 case studies.
Read MoreOverview: A compendium of tools and a resources map for teacher professional development (TPD).
Host: World Bank Group
Description: A compendium of resource guides, repositories with links to existing resources, sample TPD materials, guides on design choice, implementation approaches, TPD monitoring and evaluation approaches, slides, and video guides.
Read MoreOverview: A website with working papers and blogs that focus on policy, implementation, and evidence.
Host: The What Works Hub for Global Education
Description: This website focuses on synthesizing, curating, and translating evidence on improving literacy, numeracy, and other key skills for children. The site offers working papers and blogs that focus on sharing evidence-based ideas, government policy, and the large-scale and day-to-day implementation of reforms.
Read MoreOverview: A set of resources to inform locally led SEL programming.
Host: Inter-agency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE) and Harvard EASEL Lab
Description: A set of online and downloadable resources to support stakeholders working on psychosocial support and SEL in global settings. The resources include a guided process for developing locally led, participatory, and inclusive SEL frameworks, policies, and curricula. The toolbox also has interactive online tools to explore PSS-SEL approaches, as well as a set of additional resources, including assessments.
Read MoreOverview: An interactive e-learning course that introduces the GPF
Host: UNESCO, Global Alliance to Monitor Learning (GAML)
Description: An interactive course that walks users through the GPF background and benefits, as well as how to navigate the GPF tables and use the framework.
Read MoreResources that highlight best practices in curriculum and instruction, including language, teacher training, teacher professional development policies and planning frameworks.
Overview: A document highlighting seven components that together foster equitable reading acquisition.
Host: Science of Teaching
Description: This document presents an evidence-based framework of seven components that foster reading acquisition for all.
Read MoreOverview: A working paper by the Global Reading Network.
Host: Science of Teaching
Description: A working paper on how to design sustainable and scalable primary grade literacy and numeracy programs, aimed at presenting an efficient and effective dual approach by applying the MOSAIC framework. The paper includes 10 case studies.
Read MoreOverview: A compendium of tools and a resources map for teacher professional development (TPD).
Host: World Bank Group
Description: A compendium of resource guides, repositories with links to existing resources, sample TPD materials, guides on design choice, implementation approaches, TPD monitoring and evaluation approaches, slides, and video guides.
Read MoreOverview: Professional development series on design and scale up of foundational reading programs.
Host: Science of Teaching
Description: This is a robust set of resources, originally presented as a webinar by the USAID-funded Reading within Reach (REACH) initiative, including resources from the Global Reading Network. It includes presentations, and over 61 handouts on targeted aspects of reading program design, development and scale. Topics include: 1) Conception to Scale, 2) Resources and Materials, 3) Skills and Instruction, 4) Language, and 5) Continuous Professional Development. Examples of practical information include Guidance for printing and storage, teachers guide design guidance, benefits of learning in a familiar language, coaching strategies and many more.
Read MoreOverview: Documentation of the GPF for Reading and Mathematics
Host: Science of Teaching
Description: A set of resources which outline key competencies in reading and mathematics from grades 1 to 9, along with an associated minimum proficiency standard, which is intended to be contextualized by countries using the framework. It can be used to understand relative strength of curriculum and assessment, or for countries to track and report on SDG 4.1.1, the proportion of children and young people achieving a minimum proficiency level in reading and math
See also the E-learning course introduction: Introduction to the Global Proficiency Framework — Overview
Read MoreResources and tools to support the process of improving foundational learning and studies of existing well-designed and effective foundational literacy and numeracy programs.
Overview: A toolkit that describes what ALIGN is, and how to go about the process of alignment
Host: Science of Teaching
Description: This set of documents describe the ALIGN for Minimum Proficiency process, to identify gaps in four inter-related and important pedagogical components so they can be made more efficient and effective through alignment. These components are usually the responsibility of the Ministry of Education, and include curriculum, teaching and learning resources, teacher training, and assessment.
Read MoreOverview: Tools and guidance to support national actors to select strategic priorities for education reform to improve student learning
Host: RISE Programme
Description: A set of diagnostic tools to support national actors in selecting high-level strategic reform priorities to improve learning based on the latest education systems research. The user may choose to specifically focus on FLN. The tools can be used to identify misalignments in the system, strengthen policies, design programs, and conduct retrospective analysis to understand success or failure. The tools are designed with the goal of improving learning (ensuring a clear path from systems change to improved learning).
Read MoreOverview: A report summarizing recommendations on the most cost-effective interventions for improving learning
Host: Global Education Evidence Advisory Panel
Description: This updated report summarizes the latest evidence on the most cost-effective interventions for improving the learning of all children in low- and middle-income countries. The report is based on a systematic search and review of evaluation studies, as well as literature on interventions that have been shown to affect educational outcomes.
Read MoreOverview: A review of the cost-effectiveness of interventions based on 200 impact evaluations in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs)
Host: The What Works Hub for Global Education
Description: A comprehensive literature review of the effectiveness and cost-effectiveness of 200 education interventions in 52 countries. Programs and policies that have had a greater impact are recommended.
Read MoreOverview: A working paper on an evidence-based framework for structured pedagogy
Host: UNICEF
Description: Structured Pedagogy is frequently cited as a cost-effective approach to improving foundational learning. This 2020 working paper, directed at development partners, walks through four interlinked components of the Structured Pedagogy Framework: (1) teacher professional development, (2) teaching and learning materials, (3) formative assessments, and (4) primary caregiver engagement.
Read MoreOverview: A working paper by the USAID Global Reading Network
Host: Science of Teaching
Description: A working paper on how to design sustainable and scalable primary grade literacy and numeracy programs, aimed at presenting an efficient and effective dual approach by applying the MOSAIC framework. The paper includes 10 case studies.
Read MoreOverview: A norm-setting guidance document for UNICEF staff
Host: UNICEF
Description: This guidance note is a living document for UNICEF staff that seeks to provide a systematic way to identify and address priority bottlenecks that prevent the achievement of equitable results for children.
Read MoreOverview: A compendium of tools and a resources map for teacher professional development (TPD).
Host: World Bank Group
Description: A compendium of resource guides, repositories with links to existing resources, sample TPD materials, guides on design choice, implementation approaches, TPD monitoring and evaluation approaches, slides, and video guides.
Read MoreOverview: A document highlighting five tips produced from a review of four case studies
Host: RISE Programme
Description: This document walks readers through five tips for building coherence across their education sub-systems (curriculum design, textbook design, assessment tools, and teacher training). These tips were derived from four case studies.
Read MoreOverview: A website with working papers and blogs that focus on policy, implementation, and evidence
Host: The What Works Hub for Global Education
Description: This website focuses on synthesizing, curating, and translating evidence on improving literacy, numeracy, and other key skills for children. The site offers working papers and blogs that focus on sharing evidence-based ideas, government policy, and the large-scale and day-to-day implementation of reforms. Efficiency and effectiveness are common themes, and the website is updated regularly.
Read MoreProcesses and tools for government engagement in the pursuit of foundational learning outcomes.
Overview: A training resource that consists of a slide deck and webinar on goal setting and planning for foundational literacy and numeracy (FLN) implementation.
Host: FLN Hub
Description: This training uses the FLN "deliverology" approach to support governments in setting goals, diagnosing performance trends, understanding trajectories, and developing roadmaps for FLN implementation.
Read MoreOverview: A guide to foundational literacy and numeracy (FLN) programs with a focus on stakeholder engagement (decision-makers and practitioners)
Host: Delivery Associates, with support from the UNICEF FLN Partnership
Description: Tools that guide public sector actors in implementing FLN reforms through strategic planning, stakeholder engagement, data-driven decision-making, and evaluation systems. The guide also includes case studies.
Read MoreOverview: A toolkit that describes what ALIGN is, and how to go about the process of alignment
Host: Science of Teaching
Description: This set of documents describe the ALIGN for Minimum Proficiency process, to identify gaps in four inter-related and important pedagogical components so they can be made more efficient and effective through alignment. These components are usually are the responsibility of the Ministry of Education, and include curriculum, teaching and learning resources, teacher training, and assessment.
Read MoreOverview: A website with working papers and blogs on policy, implementation, and evidence
Host: The What Works Hub for Global Education
Description: This website curates evidence on improving literacy, numeracy, and key skills for children. It provides working papers and blogs focused on evidence-based policymaking, large-scale reforms, and daily implementation.
Read MoreOverview: A document for planning “whole system in the room,” or WSR, approach that brings together a large group of stakeholders to strengthen relationships, learn, solve problems, and commit to collective action
Host: FHI 360
Description: This document describes how to organize a WSR workshop, including framing the idea, forming a steering committee, selecting stakeholders and finding funders. Additional information about how this methodology has evolved and where it has been used can be found at the SCALE+ website.
Read MoreTools and processes that support a deeper understanding of the capabilities of government systems and actors at central and decentralized levels (such as regions and districts).
Overview: A practical guide on how to analyze government performance against a set of standard measurements
Host: Pact
Description: The GPI is a guide on reviewing and analyzing government performance across sectors like education and health. It covers effectiveness (progress toward targets and standards), efficiency (service delivery and coordination), relevance (societal and constituent impact), and sustainability (financial and environmental factors).
Read MoreOverview: A tool that tracks organizational capacity development by aligning incentives and performance
Host: PACT
Description: This tool helps track an organization's performance in effectiveness, efficiency, relevance, and sustainability. The results provide valuable evidence for organizational learning and improvement.
Read MorePrograms are often affected by changing conditions (political, environmental, etc.). Consequently, the design phase should account for the degree of ongoing context and risk assessment, as well as the contractual and management conditions that enable flexibility to adjust the scope, budget, and resources for implementation.
Overview: A descriptive document, with tools for generating rapid program feedback to improve effectiveness and efficiency
Host: USAID
Description: This toolkit document is the result of 10 years of study on approaches to incremental learning and adaptive management. It includes key principles, such as determining the “design loop,” understanding the problem, assessing the change theory pathway, and determining the feedback needed at various stages to make the best decisions.
Read MoreOverview: A workbook for developing a theory of change, with slide presentation.
Host: Science of Teaching
Description: This workbook is a step by step process that considers how to set a direction for a program by creating a shared understanding and developing interventions together with local stakeholders. The theory of change elements include desired outcomes, entry points, interventions and assumptions. The process leads toward production of a theory of change narrative and logic model.
Read MoreOverview: A norm-setting guidance document for UNICEF staff.
Host: UNICEF
Description: This guidance note is a living document for UNICEF staff that seeks to provide a systematic way to identify and address priority bottlenecks that prevent the achievement of equitable results for children.
Read MoreOverview: A document providing practical guidance and examples of the CLA process.
Host: ACDI/VOCA
Description: This CLA Playbook created by ACDI/VOCA, incorporates CLA processes from USAID and provides and describes different parts of the CLA process in detail. These include integrating collaboration, learning and adapting into the program cycle, and creating the enabling conditions for CLA, including culture, processes and resources. Each of these elements is described in detail, with tips and use cases provided.
The resources in this section explore how to anticipate potential crises and plan for them programmatically and financially. They also discuss methods to assess and pivot in the face of changing conditions.
Overview: A literature review on disaster risk finance planning and implementation from 13 health programs.
Host: Oxford Policy Management
Description: A literature review of findings from 13 programs that included crisis modifiers. Crisis modifiers contribute rapid response after shocks and disruptions, bringing together humanitarian aid and development.
Overview: A technical brief.
Host: ACAPS
Description: This technical brief provides a detailed description of facilitated processes for bringing together experts, both in the context of a potential or active humanitarian crisis and in humanitarian operations, to identify plausible ways the crisis could develop to enable scenario planning.
Overview: A toolkit on how to design a comprehensive learning strategy for an entire education sector or system.
Host: Science of Teaching
Description: This toolkit aims to provide a practical overview of how to design a comprehensive distance learning strategy that covers an entire education sector or system. It details the four components of this strategy and provides additional resources for each component.
Overview: A toolkit on planning and decision-making during and after education disruptions due to crises.
Host: INEE
Description: This toolkit aims to help education planners plan and make key decisions on the return to learning during and after education disruptions caused by crises, in a way that is equitable, inclusive, and builds the resilience of education systems. Also see Returning to Learning Toolkit: Advocacy Brief.
Overview: A series of training modules and case studies explaining how to administer foundational literacy and numeracy (FLN) assessments.
Host: FLN Hub
Description: This landing page contains modules on formative assessments for literacy and numeracy. The page includes videos and reading materials. These assessments can be administered to all children in the 5–16 age group and can be conducted both in and out of school.
Overview: A toolkit to support the understanding of and response to complex and volatile environments (e.g., conflicts and natural disasters).
Host: Science of Teaching
Description: This toolkit is used by development partners to better design, procure, and oversee education programs in the contexts of disruption, disaster, and conflict. It can also be used by implementers for context analysis as a baseline for co-design and early program planning or as a review for contextual changes as part of adaptive program management. The analysis focuses primarily on the school community.
Overview: A curated library of global resources for SEL in humanitarian settings.
Host: INEE
Description: An introduction to MHPSS and SEL in education for use in humanitarian and low-resource contexts. The landing page opens with an overview of key terms, concepts, and evidence. The library includes foundational resources such as virtual training modules and guidance notes, as well as practical materials for implementing and evaluating SEL programming.
This section includes a range of crosscutting issues of interest to development partners: social and emotional learning (SEL), gender and social inclusion (GESI), information and communication technology (ICT) in education, universal design for learning (UDL), and equitable learning for all.
Overview: A non-domain-specific framework and guidance for identifying bottlenecks to quality service provision
Host: UNICEF
Description: This note supports the identification of the availability and quality of service for the most deprived children and families. The information, which should be used when preparing a new program or for mid-program evaluation, is not subject specific.
Read MoreOverview: A systematic review of the evidence and effects of SEL programs
Host: Science of Teaching
Description: This report on SEL interventions includes the effects on social and emotional competencies, academics, health and well-being, and resilience. A gap map and study brief are also included.
Read MoreOverview: A framework, curriculum, and materials for teachers and students ages 6 through 17
Host: World Bank Group
Description: This toolkit includes grade-appropriate materials for teachers, support materials for students, a framework, a curriculum, and methods of implementation. Materials are available in English and Spanish.
Read MoreOverview: A set of resources to inform locally led SEL programming
Hosts: Inter-agency Network for Education in Emergencies (INEE) and Harvard EASEL Lab
Description: A set of online and downloadable resources to support stakeholders working on psychosocial support and SEL in global settings. The resources include a guided process for developing locally led, participatory, and inclusive SEL frameworks, policies, and curricula. The toolbox also has interactive online tools to explore PSS-SEL approaches, as well as a set of additional resources, including assessments.
Read MoreOverview: A Universal Design for Learning (UDL) focused, comprehensive website of resources, including a framework, program examples, guidance, and policies
Host: CAST
Description: UDL is a “framework to improve and optimize teaching and learning for all people based on scientific insights into how humans learn.” The robust website includes background information, guidance, program descriptions, materials, and communication concepts. A one-page overview table can be found at UDL Guidelines, that includes guidance for integrating UDL into teaching and learning.
Read MoreOverview: A searchable database with research on technology in education for decision-making and learning
Host: EdTech Hub (with support from UNICEF and multiple international development partners)
Description: This web-based database of more than 200 resources serves as an evidence base for different types of technology used in education interventions. The resources include case studies, video overviews, and working papers and are typically academic in nature.
Read MoreOverview: A guide on gender equality and inclusiveness in teaching and learning materials
Host: Save the Children
Description: This is guidance on gender equality and inclusiveness in TLMs, including contextual adaptation for textbooks and supplementary reading materials.
Read MoreOverview: A website repository of learning from the long-standing Girls’ Education Challenge initiative
Host: U.K. Foreign, Commonwealth & Development Office (FCDO) — Girls’ Education Challenge
Description: This repository includes a range of resources covering issues such as value for money, managing partners, gender equality, and strengthening teaching and learning.
Read MoreIntegrated programs attempt to combine multiple support services to holistically support programs. For example, primary education programs are often paired with health, water and sanitation, nutrition (school feeding programs), and/or child protection.
Overview: A norm-setting guidance document for UNICEF staff
Host: UNICEF
Description: This guidance note is a living document for UNICEF staff that seeks to provide a systematic way to identify and address priority bottlenecks that prevent the achievement of equitable results for children.
Read MoreIt is challenging to set realistic outcome indicators for student learning. The scale and intensity of a program will affect what is attainable. A program with a limited scale but a more intense design often leads to measurably higher impact. Intense programs could include those with inputs that exceed what is supported in the regular education system, such as adding paraprofessionals to support schools or providing regular, ongoing coaching support from university-trained educators who are not part of the basic education system. Such a program could also include other goods and services not normally achievable or sustainable through government means (depending on the context), such as teacher training packages of 10 days or more, or specialized equipment, such as tablet-based readers for each child.
By comparison, evidence of impact for cost-effective, large-scale programs shows high effect sizes (very strong effect sizes for education programs) but modest gains in average improvement. For literacy, for example, the best global programs at scale have made average gains of between two and 18 correct words per minute by the end of second or third grade. A good reference for these programs is the recent meta-analysis completed by the Learning at Scale initiative (literacy findings; numeracy findings). When setting outcome indicators and expectations for achievement, it is important to account for the effects of scale and intensity.
Institutionalization and sustainability are more likely when development partners engage the whole system in decision-making, problem-solving, system alignment, implementation and iterative improvement. The whole system implies all key stakeholders involved in the education system, and select stakeholders required to implement a targeted reform or new program. Stakeholders can be guided to analyze major gaps, system changes that have the most potential impact on outcomes and the unique role of each stakeholder in these changes. Examples of interventions involving government systems and sub-systems in FLN include:
Establishing flexible, adaptable FLN programs requires strong donor-implementer collaboration. Key approaches to help programs remain agile while maintaining a focus on impact and sustainability include:
Engages stakeholders in co-design to enhance ownership, integrate activities into government planning, and leverage local resources. This helps ensure alignment with government initiatives and adaptability to evolving risks and opportunities. Expecting major deliverables during this phase can undermine its effectiveness. In addition to overloading staff, early deliverable requirements can lock programs into staffing and contract structures prematurely, before inception-informed adjustments have been made to the management plan.
Cooperative agreements or grants with iteratively defined milestones support adaptation better than rigid contractual mechanisms, allowing responsiveness to changes and learning within complex systems.
Initial discussions help define what degree of change may be within the comfort zone of both parties, and how to make those contractual adjustments. This mutual understanding fosters informed, confident decision-making.
Regular dedicated sessions on data-driven adjustments with funders, implementers, and key stakeholders support informed, agile programming.
Many disasters and disruptions to education can be predicted and prevented, or mitigated, through investments in preparedness. Development dollars can be used to strength national, decentralized, and local planning and preparedness for the safe and inclusive continuity of education in the case of scenarios such as natural disasters, public health emergencies, and violent conflicts. These proactive investments can reduce the harmful impacts of disaster and build government and community resilience to recover more quickly and cost effectively. For example, school safety planning and the training of education staff and learners can save lives and limit damage to learning materials and infrastructure in an emergency. Investments in disaster-resilient and contextually appropriate retrofits for school infrastructure, such lightning rods, alarm systems, reinforced roofs, and flood-control channels, are less expensive than rebuilding schools destroyed by a disaster. Furthermore, as demonstrated by COVID-19, if a disruption forces schools to close for a significant period of time, pivoting to existing distance-learning systems is significantly cheaper than starting from zero after school closures and then remediating learning losses.
Expertise in language as well as literacy (for literacy programs), mathematics (for math) and also curriculum development is key. Input from linguists is critical to the development of early literacy teaching and learning methods and materials in newer FLN programs. The required capacities include linguists who know how the written language works (orthography), a literacy expert/specialist who knows how to teach literacy and use linguistics to design a curriculum/scope and sequence, and a linguist familiar with the social aspects of the language (knowing what aspects may be socially controversial and preparedness to work with language communities to find solutions). Associated resources include the Language of Instruction Webinar. Similarly, having high-level expertise in mathematics does not necessarily mean an individual has expertise in how young children learn mathematics, learning progressions, or best approaches for teaching children mathematics in the early grades. It is important to involve specialists in mathematics teaching and learning when the curriculum and materials are developed.
Curriculum design can present challenges for children learning in a non-native language, especially when subjects like math, science, and social studies are taught in a different language from literacy instruction. The curriculum may also fail to include literacy areas that are key to learning subject-area content, including expanding vocabulary and comprehension skills. This disconnect can hinder a learner’s ability to “read to learn” as they advance in school and is important to address.
Approaches to support instruction in multilingual environments include:
These strategies help bridge linguistic gaps, fostering stronger comprehension and academic success for multilingual learners.
Literacy programs that teach literacy in languages that children do not speak at home require extra steps to enable learning, including:
More information on the language of instruction can be found on the Science of Teaching website and in the Handbook on Language of Instruction Issues in Reading Programs.
While FLN programs tend to focus on instructional techniques, it is important not to discount building teacher knowledge. Research has shown that a teacher’s mathematical knowledge for teaching — including both their own understanding of mathematics and their knowledge of how children learn mathematics —and how to support learning are significantly related to student mathematical achievement. Unfortunately, in many LMIC contexts, a teacher’s mathematical knowledge is quite low. Teachers who have strong mathematical knowledge for teaching will be able to model and explain mathematical concepts clearly, including the “why” behind mathematics and not only the “how,” as well as facilitate student discussion and identify misconceptions. As found across multiple effective numeracy programs, students have more success when they develop both a conceptual understanding of and procedural fluency with mathematics skills. They are more likely to succeed when their teachers are able to model and explain concepts using multiple representations, engage students in problem solving, and facilitate discussions about mathematics (see Numeracy — Learning at Scale). Students require a knowledgeable teacher to learn mathematical thinking and application, in contrast to knowing how to manipulate numbers without context or reasoning.
For more information, refer to the Science of Teaching How-to Guide on Designing Effective Numeracy Programs.
Effective teaching requires adapting instructional activities to the skill levels and knowledge of students. FLN models, including structured pedagogical models, build in regular formative and periodic assessments for teachers to adapt lessons and plan for learners’ needs. Structured pedagogy uses a set of methods and materials that support teachers to robustly develop learners’ knowledge, skills, and understanding according to the education curriculum. Assessment-informed remedial instruction (sometimes referred to as “TaRL” or “targeted instruction,” although there are additional meanings for both of these terms in the field of education) differs in that the programs often take place outside of the classroom, keep students in skill-based rather than age-based groups, and teach a limited number of specific skills instead of the broader curriculum (for instance, decoding and fluency are typically prioritized over language development and comprehension). To support the learning of all students and to ensure that fewer students will need remedial instruction in the future, it is important to identify approaches to integrate models that support core instruction across the curriculum, such as structured pedagogy, as well as models that support students who continue to struggle, such as remedial instruction interventions.
The following resources contain more detailed information to better understand each program style:
The potential benefits of integrated programs that provide essential services such as school gardens, feeding programs, and WASH initiatives in addition to education are readily apparent. However, these “additional services” can easily cause unintentional negative impacts, especially a reduction in instructional time. Research consistently identifies instructional time as a key predictor of learning outcomes. Therefore, it is crucial to carefully balance these elements in program design, rather than including extra services and assuming they will enhance attendance and learning. Another risk is that school leaders, such as principals, are often relied upon to coordinate these various services and activities at the school level. However, principals already have many responsibilities (administration, finances, staff management, and community and government liaison) and typically also play pedagogical quality assurance roles, such as teacher coaching. Alternatively, principals could delegate these activities to other staff members, such as teachers, reducing teachers’ time for instructional preparation or contact time with learners. Effective program design should thus ensure any new responsibilities for service provision are shared across multiple individuals to avoid overwhelming key staff and to support sustainable implementation.